Using herbal substitutes for Pangolin parts in traditional medicine: an approach to Pangolin conservation in Ghana
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22848475Keywords:
Pangolin Parts, Traditional Medicine, Pan Substitute, Conservation, GhanaAbstract
Pangolins, as ecologically important and culturally valued species, face increasing threats from hunting and trading due to their therapeutic uses in traditional healing practices. Despite the existence of laws and regulations for pangolin protection, the body parts continue to be used to treat several ailments in Ghana, contributing to their population decline and endangered status. This study explores the use of herbs and promotes herbal substitutes for pangolin body parts in traditional medicine as a conservation strategy. Using a mixed-method approach, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 21 traditional healers across four regions in Ghana. Data were analyzed thematically using NVivo 14, supplemented by document reviews that identified herbal treatment substitutes for pangolin parts. A total of 22 herbs were identified as potential substitutes for 24 ailments treated with pangolin parts in traditional medicine. Policy implications include awareness creation, targeted education, and financial incentives to promote the adoption of herbal substitutes. The overall benefits include sustainable traditional healing practices and conservation of endangered pangolins.
References
Agro, P. P. (2020). Status, Distribution, and Abundance of Vulnerable African White-Bellied Pangolin.
Alhassan, R. K., Nketiah-Amponsah, E., Akazili, J., Spieker, N., Arhinful, D. K., & Rinke de Wit, T. F. (2015). Efficiency of private and public primary health facilities accredited by the National Health Insurance Authority in Ghana. Cost Effectiveness and Resource Allocation, 13(1), 23.
Amoah, R. E., Wireko-Manu, F. D., Oduro, I., Saalia, F. K., Ellis, W. O., & Owusu, E. (2022). Application of spices in foods: consumer preferences, knowledge of health benefits, and quality of dried ginger. Cogent Food & Agriculture, 8(1), 2123766.
Asase, A., Akwetey, G. A., & Achel, D. G. (2010). Ethnopharmacological use of herbal remedies for the treatment of malaria in the Dangme West District of Ghana. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 129(3), 367-376.
Asase, A. (2023). Ghana’s herbal medicine industry: prospects, challenges and ways forward from a developing country perspective. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 14, 1267398.
Ayele, A. H., Seid, A., Mekonnen, A. B., Adnew, W. W., & Yemata, G. (2024). Ethnobotanical study of the traditional use of medicinal plants used for treating human diseases in selected districts of West Gojjam zone, Amhara Region, Ethiopia. Phytomedicine Plus, 4(3), 100620.
Ayiku, N. M. (1992). Ghana Herbal Pharmacopoeia, Technology Transfer Centre.
Bernard, H. R., Wutich, A., & Ryan, G. W. (2016). Analyzing qualitative data: Systematic approaches. SAGE publications.
Biggs, D., Cooney, R., & Roe, D. (2017). Engaging local communities in wildlife conservation.
Boakye, M. K., Kotzé, A., Dalton, D. L., & Jansen, R. (2015). Traditional use of pangolins in Africa: A review.
Boateng, M. A., Danso-Appiah, A., Turkson, B. K., & Tersbøl, B. P. (2016). Integrating biomedical and herbal medicine in Ghana–experiences from the Kumasi South Hospital: a qualitative study. BMC complementary and alternative medicine, 16(1), 189.
Challender, D. W. S., & Watkinson, J. (2016). Pangolins: Adaptations and conservation.
Challender, D. W. S., Harrop, S. R., & MacMillan, D. C. (2015). Understanding markets to conserve trade-threatened species.
Challender, D. W. S., & MacMillan, D. C. (2014). Addressing pangolin demand: A review of the evidence.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.
D’Cruze, N., Assou, D., Coulthard, E., Norrey, J., Megson, D., Macdonald, D. W., Harrington, L. A., Ronfot, D., Segniagbeto, G. H., & Auliya, M. (2020). Snake oil and pangolin scales: Insights into wild animal use at “Marché des Fétiches” traditional medicine market, Togo. Nature Conservation, 39, 45–71.
Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.). (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research. sage.
Dold, A. P., & Cocks, M. L. (2002). The trade in medicinal plants in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Science, 98(11), 589-597.
Fabricant, D. S., & Farnsworth, N. R. (2001). The value of plants used in traditional medicine for drug discovery. Environmental health perspectives, 109(Suppl 1), 69.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218-226.
Guest, G., Namey, E. E., & Mitchell, M. L. (2013). Collecting qualitative data: A field manual for applied research. Sage.
Gunjan, M., Naing, T. W., Saini, R. S., Ahmad, A., Naidu, J. R., & Kumar, I. (2015). Marketing trends & future prospects of herbal medicine in the treatment of various disease. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 4(9), 132-155.
Heinrich S., Wittman, T. A., Rose, J. V., Shepherd, C. R., Challender, D., & Cassey, P. (2017). The global trafficking of pangolins: A comprehensive summary of seizures and trafficking routes from 2010-2015. Traffic report.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. Sage Publications.
Ingram, D. J., Coad, L., & Scharlemann, J. P. W. (2018). Threats from deforestation and agricultural expansion.
Irshad, N., Naved, M., & Mahmood, T. (2015). Food habits and prey selectivity of Indian pangolin in captivity. Journal of Animal Science, 85(3), 439-446.
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). (2019). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (Version 2019-1). IUCN. https://www.iucnredlist.org (accessed October 2024)
Kacholi, D. S. (2025). Ethnobotanical Study of Medicinal Herbs Used by the Luguru Tribe Against Various Human Ailments in Morogoro Rural District, Tanzania. The Scientific World Journal, 2025(1), 6134739.
Kadir, M. F., Sayeed, M. S. B., Setu, N. I., Mostafa, A., & Mia, M. M. K. (2014). Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants used by traditional health practitioners in Thanchi, Bandarban Hill Tracts, Bangladesh. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 155(1), 495-508.
Kumar, B., Tiwari, S., Bajpai, V., & Singh, B. (2020). Phytochemistry of plants of genus piper. CRC Press.
Kwame, A. (2021). Integrating traditional medicine and healing into the Ghanaian mainstream health system: voices from within. Qualitative Health Research, 31(10), 1847-1860.
Lapenna, S., Bergonzi, M. C., Vincieri, F. F., & Bilia, A. R. (2008). NPC Natural Product Communications 2008. NPC Natural Product Communications, 3, 2003.
Lee, T. M., Sigouin, A., Pinedo-Vasquez, M., & Nasi, R. (2020). The harvest of tropical wildlife for bushmeat and traditional medicine. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 45(1), 145-170.
Maurice, M. E., Divine, E., Ngome, K. E., Esong, E. L., Colins, M. K., Ewange, M. B., ... & Onorakwa, O. N. (2024). Rainforest Vegetation Type: A Leverage to Pangolin Habitat Enhancement in Deng-Deng National Park, Eastern Region, Cameroon. International Journal of Ecosystems & Ecology Sciences, 14(3).
Mensah, R. Q., Adusei, S., Azupio, S., & Kwakye, R. (2024). Nutritive value, biological properties, health benefits and applications of Tetrapleura tetraptera: An updated comprehensive review. Heliyon.
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and policy in mental health and mental health services research, 42(5), 533-544.
Patel, H., Nguyen, K., Lehman, E., Mainali, G., Duda, L., Byler, D., & Kumar, A. (2020). Use of complementary and alternative medicine in children with Tourette syndrome. Journal of Child Neurology, 35(8), 512-516.
Pietersen, D. W., McKechnie, A. E., & Jansen, R. (2016). A review of the conservation status of pangolins. African Journal of Ecology, 54(2), 143-153.
Sharma, L. (2020). Immunomodulatory effect and supportive role of traditional herbs, spices and nutrients in management of COVID-19. https://doi.org/10.20944/preprints202009.0026.v1
Silverman, D. (2013). A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about qualitative research.
Stevens, H., & Huys, I. (2017). Innovative approaches to increase access to medicines in developing countries. Frontiers in medicine, 4, 218.
Roe, D., & Booker, F. (2019). Engaging local communities in tackling illegal wildlife trade: A synthesis of approaches and lessons for best practice. Conservation Science and Practice, 1(5).
Sampson, L. E., & Appiah-Opoku, S. (2025). Exploring institutional and legislative weaknesses in wildlife conservation: The case of pangolins in Ghana. Scientific African, e02975.
Sampson, L. E., & Appiah-Opoku, S. (2024). Spatial analysis of wildlife trafficking and concealment methods: The case of Pangolins. Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity, 8(4), 87-106.
Soewu, D. A., & Adekanola, T. A. (2011). Traditional-medical knowledge and perception of pangolins (Manis sps) among the Awori people, Southwestern Nigeria. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 7, 1-11.
Soewu, D. A., & Sodeinde, O. A. (2015). Utilization of pangolins in Africa: fuelling factors, diversity of uses and sustainability. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 7(1), 1-10.
Swart, J. M., Richardson, P. R. K., & Ferguson, J. W. H. (1999). Ecological correlates of body shape in the Temminck's ground pangolin. Journal of Mammalogy, 80(2), 461-472.
Sweeney, R. C. H. (1956). Some notes on the Temminck's ground pangolin of East Africa. East African Journal of Natural History, 23(4), 197-206.
Tilburt, J. C., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (2008). Herbal medicine research and global health: an ethical analysis. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 86, 594-599.
Veríssimo, D., & Wan, A. K. (2019). Characterizing efforts to reduce consumer demand for wildlife products. Conservation Biology, 33(3), 623-633.
Wachtel-Galor, S., & Benzie, I. F. F. (2011). Herbal medicine: An introduction to its history, usage, regulation, current trends, and research needs. In Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects (2nd ed., pp. 1–10).
Willcox, D., Nash, H. C., Trageser, S., Kim, H. J., Hywood, L., Connelly, E., ... & Challender, D. W. (2019). Evaluating methods for detecting and monitoring pangolin (Pholidata: Manidae) populations. Global Ecology and Conservation, 17, e00539.
Williams, V. L., Cunningham, A. B., Kemp, A. C., & Bruyns, R. K. (2014). Risks to birds traded for African traditional medicine: a quantitative assessment. PloS one, 9(8), e105397.
World Health Organization. (2013). WHO traditional medicine strategy: 2014-2023. World Health Organization.
World Health Organization. (2019). WHO global report on traditional and complementary medicine 2019. World Health Organization.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JWB applies the 