Living on the edge: Spatial patterns of human–brown bear conflicts and implications for adaptive management in southwestern Iran
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20001197Keywords:
large carnivores, local communities, damages, adaptive management, protected areasAbstract
Human–carnivore conflicts increasingly threaten large carnivores worldwide, and the brown bear (Ursus arctos) is no exception. In Iran, which hosts the southernmost extent of the species' global distribution, such conflicts have risen noticeably over the past decade, yet spatially explicit information remains limited. Here, we aimed to determine the most important areas of tension between local communities and brown bears within southwestern Iran, Kohgiluyeh va Boyer-Ahmad Province. Our study included field surveys and 332 semi-structured interviews with residents. Subsequently, the kernel density estimation was utilized to analyze five conflict types: attacks on humans, livestock depredation, damage to fruit orchards and beehives, and roadkill incidents. Our mapping highlighted the eastern and northeastern parts of the study area as hotspots for all conflict types. The overlap of conflict hotspots with protected areas was significant: approximately half of human attacks and livestock depredation events, 34.7% of orchard damage sites, 63.6% of beehive damage sites, and about a quarter of high-risk roadkill segments fell inside or at the edges of protected areas. Conflicts were more frequent during late summer and early autumn, linked to the bears' hyperphagic phase and seasonal human activities such as fruit harvesting and moving beehives into mountains. These trends show that conflicts don’t happen at random; rather, they occur when bears grow accustomed to readily available anthropogenic resources, human land uses encroach on bear habitats, and natural food sources are depleted. The existing overlap between bear habitats and human livelihoods in protected areas indicates that current management strategies are not sufficient. Without site-specific adaptive measures such as electric fencing around orchards and apiaries, bear-proof enclosures, and community-based early warning systems, conflicts are likely to intensify, undermining both local tolerance and the long-term persistence of this threatened population.
References
Ahmadi, M., Kaboli, M., Imani Harsini, J., Khosravi Sharifabadi, R., & Almasi, M. (2012). Strategic management plan for wolf (Canis lupus) in Hamedan Province: An approach to reducing human-wolf conflicts. Journal of Natural Environment, 65(3), 271–281. (In Persian). https://jne.ut.ac.ir/article_30303.html
Almasieh, K., & Mohammadi, A. (2025). Assessment of habitat fragmentation for grey wolf and Persian leopard in some Iranian desert landscapes. Scientific Reports, 15(1), 32182. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-32182-x
Ambarli, H., & Bilgin, C. C. (2008). Human–brown bear conflicts in Artvin, northeastern Turkey: Encounters, damage, and attitudes. Ursus, 19(2), 146–153. https://doi.org/10.2192/1523-0430-19.2.146
Anderson, J. L., & Pariela, F. (2005). Strategies to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts—Mozambique (Wildlife Management Working Paper). Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). https://www.fao.org/4/j7248e/j7248e00.htm
Ashrafzadeh, M.-R., Khosravi, R., Ahmadi, M., & Kaboli, M. (2018). Landscape heterogeneity and ecological niche isolation shape the distribution of spatial genetic variation in Iranian brown bears, Ursus arctos (Carnivora: Ursidae). Mammalian Biology, 93, 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2018.08.003
Ashrafzadeh, M. R., Shahbazinasab, K., Mohammadi, A., & Penteriani, V. (2023). Determining the distribution factors of an endangered large carnivore: A case study of the brown bear Ursus arctos population in the Central Zagros Mountains, Southwest Iran. Global Ecology and Conservation, 46, e02590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2023.e02590
Athreya, V., Srivathsa, A., Puri, M., Karanth, K. K., Kumar, N. S., & Karanth, K. U. (2015). Spotted in the news: Using media reports to examine leopard distribution, depredation, and management practices outside protected areas in Southern India. PLOS One, 10(11), e0142647. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142647
Baruch-Mordo, S. (2007). Black bear-human conflicts in Colorado: Spatiotemporal patterns and predictors [Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University]. Digital Collections of Colorado. https://mountainscholar.org/handle/10217/439
Behmanesh, M., Malekian, M., Fakheran, S., Hemami, M. R., & Ahmadi, M. (2018). Frequency and intensity of carnivore damage to livestock breeders in eastern Isfahan Province. Journal of Animal Environment, 10(4), 35–44. (In Persian). http://www.aejournal.ir/article_82582.html
Bombieri, G., Penteriani, V., Almasieh, K., Ambarlı, H., Ashrafzadeh, M. R., Das, C. S., ... & del Mar Delgado, M. (2023). A worldwide perspective on large carnivore attacks on humans. PLoS Biology, 21(1), e3001946. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.3001946
Calvignac, S., Hughes, S., & Hänni, C. (2009). Genetic diversity of endangered brown bear (Ursus arctos) populations at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Diversity and Distributions, 15(5), 742–750. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2009.00586.x
Can, Ö. E., D’Cruze, N., Garshelis, D. L., Beecham, J., & Macdonald, D. W. (2014). Resolving human–bear conflict: A global survey of countries, experts, and key factors. Conservation Letters, 7(6), 501–513. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12117
Can, Ö., & Togan, İ. (2004). Status and management of brown bears in Turkey. Ursus, 15(1), 48–53. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3873459
Charoo, S. A., Sharma, L. K., & Sathyakumar, S. (2011). Asiatic black bear–human interactions around Dachigam National Park, Kashmir, India. Ursus, 22(2), 106–113. https://doi.org/10.2192/URSUS-D-10-00021.1
Chauhan, N. P. S. (2003). Human casualties and livestock depredation by black and brown bears in the Indian Himalaya, 1989–98. Ursus, 14(1), 84–87. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3873300
Dai, Y., Hacker, C. E., Zhang, Y., Li, Y., Li, J., Xue, Y., & Li, D. (2020). Conflicts of humans with the Tibetan brown bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus) in the Sanjiangyuan region, China. Global Ecology and Conservation, 22, e01039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01039
Dai, Y. C., Li, D. Q., Liu, F., Zhang, Y. G., Zhang, Y., Ji, Y. R., & Xue, Y. D. (2019a). Summary comments on human-bear conflict mitigation measures and implications for Sanjiangyuan National Park. Acta Ecologica Sinica, 39(22), 8201–8208. https://doi.org/10.5846/stxb201901170138
Dai, Y., Hacker, C. E., Zhang, Y., Li, W., Li, J., Zhang, Y., Bona, G., Liu, H., Li, Y., Xue, Y., & Li, D. (2019b). Identifying the risk regions of house break-ins caused by Tibetan brown bears (Ursus arctos pruinosus) in the Sanjiangyuan region, China. Ecology and Evolution, 9(24), 13979–13990. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5835
Dar, S. A., Singh, S. K., Wan, H. Y., Kumar, V., Cushman, S. A., & Sathyakumar, S. (2021). Projected climate change threatens Himalayan brown bear habitat more than human land use. Animal Conservation, 24(4), 659–676. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12673
Dickman, A. J. (2010). Complexities of conflict: The importance of considering social factors for effectively resolving human–wildlife conflict. Animal Conservation, 13(5), 458–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-2911.2010.00752.x
Distefano, E. (2005). Human-wildlife conflict worldwide: Collection of case studies, analysis of management strategies and good practices. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). https://www.fao.org/4/a0279e/a0279e00.htm
Dorresteijn, I., Hanspach, J., Kecskés, A., Latková, H., Mezey, Z., Sugár, S., von Wehrden, H., & Fischer, J. (2014). Human–carnivore coexistence in a traditional rural landscape. Landscape Ecology, 29(7), 1145–1155. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0048-5
Fahimi, H., & Yusefi, G. H. (2010, May 16–22). Food habits of the Baluchistan black bear in the Bahr-e Asman Mountain, Iran [Paper presentation]. 19th International Conference on Bear Research and Management, Tbilisi, Georgia. https://www.bearbiology.org/publications/conference-proceedings/
Farhadinia, M. S., & Moqanaki, E. (2019). A manual on human-large carnivore conflict management in Iran. Iran Department of Environment. (In Persian)
Glikman, J. A., Vaske, J. J., Bath, A. J., Ciucci, P., & Boitani, L. (2012). Residents’ support for wolf and bear conservation: The moderating influence of knowledge. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 58(1), 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-011-0579-x
Hipólito, D., Reljić, S., Rosalino, L. M., Wilson, S. M., Fonseca, C., & Huber, Đ. (2020). Brown bear damage: Patterns and hotspots in Croatia. Oryx, 54(4), 511–519. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531800028X
Karamanlidis, A. A., Sanopoulos, A., Georgiadis, L., & Zedrosser, A. (2011). Structural and economic aspects of human–bear conflicts in Greece. Ursus, 22(2), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.2192/URSUS-D-10-00022.1
Karanth, K. K., Gopalaswamy, A. M., Prasad, P. K., & Dasgupta, S. (2013). Patterns of human–wildlife conflicts and compensation: Insights from Western Ghats protected areas. Biological Conservation, 166, 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2013.06.027
Kellert, S. R., Black, M., Rush, C. R., & Bath, A. J. (1996). Human culture and large carnivore conservation in North America. Conservation Biology, 10(4), 977–990. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10040977.x
Khaleghizadeh, A., & Khormali, S. (2005). The brown bear, Ursus arctos, feeding on sunflowers in the vicinity of Golestan National Park, Iran. Zoology in the Middle East, 34(1), 109–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/09397140.2005.10638090
Khosravi, R., & Sadeghi, M. R. (2022). An assessment of food habit of the brown bear in human-bear conflict hotspots in Fars province. Journal of Animal Environment, 14(4), 1–10. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22034/aej.2022.332306.2768
Khosravi, R., Wan, H. Y., Sadeghi, M. R., & Cushman, S. A. (2022). Identifying human–brown bear conflict hotspots for prioritizing critical habitat and corridor conservation in southwestern Iran. Animal Conservation, 25(6), 844–857. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12789
Inskip, C., & Zimmermann, A. (2009). Human-felid conflict: A review of patterns and priorities worldwide. Oryx, 43(1), 18–34. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060530800050X
Lamarque, F., Anderson, J., Fergusson, R., Lagrange, M., Osei-Owusu, Y., & Bakker, L. (2009). Human-wildlife conflict in Africa: Causes, consequences and management strategies (No. 157). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). https://www.fao.org/3/i0741e/i0741e00.htm
Lozano, J., Olszańska, A., Morales-Reyes, Z., Castro, A. A., Malo, A. F., Moleón, M., Sánchez-Zapata, J. A., Cortés-Avizanda, A., von Wehrden, H., Dorresteijn, I., & Kansky, R. (2019). Human-carnivore relations: A systematic review. Biological Conservation, 237, 214–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019.07.002
Lumsden, P. L. (1997). The bear in selected American, Canadian, and Native literature: A pedagogical symbol linking humanity and nature [Doctoral dissertation, University of Ottawa]. Ottawa, Canada. https://doi.org/10.20381/ruor-15024
Madadi, M., Nezami, B., Kaboli, M., & Rezaei, H. R. (2020). Identifying human-brown bear (Ursus arctos) conflicts areas in Mazandaran Province. Experimental Animal Biology, 9(2), 83–95. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.30473/eab.2020.49019.1746
Majić, A., de Bodonia, A. M. T., Huber, Đ., & Bunnefeld, N. (2011). Dynamics of public attitudes toward bears and the role of bear hunting in Croatia. Biological Conservation, 144(12), 3018–3027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.005
Majić Skrbinšek, A., & Krofel, M. (2014). Defining, preventing, and reacting to problem bear behaviour in Europe. European Commission. https://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/conservation/species/carnivores/pdf/Lcie_problem_bear_report_final.pdf
Manfredo, M. J., & Dayer, A. A. (2004). Concepts for exploring the social aspects of human–wildlife conflict in a global context. Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 9(4), 317–328. https://doi.org/10.1080/10871200490505765
Mangipane, L. S., Belant, J. L., Hiller, T. L., Colvin, M. E., Gustine, D. D., Mangipane, B. A., & Hilderbrand, G. V. (2018). Influences of landscape heterogeneity on home-range sizes of brown bears. Mammalian Biology, 88(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2017.11.002
Marchini, S., Ferraz, K., Zimmermann, A., Guimarães-Luiz, T., Morato, R., Correa, P. L., & Macdonald, D. W. (2019). Planning for coexistence in a complex human-dominated world. In F. M. S. Frank & J. A. Resende (Eds.), Human–wildlife interactions: Turning conflict into coexistence (pp. 414–438). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108235730.022
Maxwell, D., & Azzopardi, L. (2016, October). Agents, simulated users, and humans: An analysis of performance and behaviour. In Proceedings of the 25th ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge Management (pp. 731–740). https://doi.org/10.1145/2983323.2983808
McLellan, B. N., Proctor, M. F., Huber, D., & Michel, S. (2017). Ursus arctos (amended version of 2017 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017, e.T41688A121229971. https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20173.RLTS.T41688A121229971.en
Messmer, T. A. (2009). Human–wildlife conflicts: Emerging challenges and opportunities. Human–Wildlife Conflicts, 3(1), 10–17. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/hwi/vol3/iss1/4/
Mishra, C. (1997). Livestock depredation by large carnivores in the Indian trans-Himalaya: Conflict perceptions and conservation prospects. Environmental Conservation, 24(4), 338–343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S037689299700044X
Mishra, C., Allen, P., McCarthy, T. O. M., Madhusudan, M. D., Bayarjargal, A., & Prins, H. H. (2003). The role of incentive programs in conserving the snow leopard. Conservation Biology, 17(6), 1512–1520. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00092.x
Mohammadi, A., Kaboli, M., Sazatornil, V., & López-Bao, J. V. (2019). Anthropogenic food resources sustain wolves in conflict scenarios of Western Iran. PLOS One, 14(6), e0218345. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0218345
Mohammadi, A., Almasieh, K., Nayeri, D., Ataei, F., Khani, A., López-Bao, J. V., ... & Cushman, S. A. (2021). Identifying priority core habitats and corridors for effective conservation of brown bears in Iran. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1044. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-80631-9
Mohammadi, A., & Almasieh, K. (2022). Human-brown bear conflict in the southernmost part of its distribution in Iran (Roshan Kooh no-hunting area, Fars Province). Journal of Natural Environment, 75(4), 539–550. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22059/jne.2022.342416.2415
Mohammadi, A., Alambeigi, A., López‐Bao, J. V., Taghavi, L., & Kaboli, M. (2022). Living with wolves: Lessons learned from Iran. Conservation Science and Practice, 4(5), e12667. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12667
Naderi, M., Çoban, E., Caceres, F. C., Blount, J. D., Çoban, A., Kusak, J., & Şekercioğlu, Ç. H. (2024). Brown bear denning habits in northeastern Türkiye. Global Ecology and Conservation, 54, e03156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03156
Naderi, M., Palme, R., Yarnell, K., Çoban, E., Çoban, A. K., Kusak, J., & Şekercioğlu, Ç. H. (2025). Stress responses in free ranging brown bears (Ursus arctos) in eastern Türkiye. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, 1639623. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1639623
Naughton, L., Rose, R., & Treves, A. (1999). The social dimensions of human-elephant conflict in Africa: A literature review and case studies from Uganda and Cameroon. Report to the African Elephant Specialist Group, Human-Elephant Conflict Task Force, IUCN. https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/is_publications/1585350
Naves, J., Fernández-Gil, A., Ordiz, A., Pérez Méndez, T., Vázquez, J. F., Albornoz, J., Domínguez Sanjurjo, A., & Delibes, M. (2010). Análisis de los daños atribuidos al oso pardo sobre la agricultura y la ganadería en Asturias [Analysis of damage attributed to brown bears on agriculture and livestock in Asturias]. Report to Consejería de Medio Ambiente, Principado de Asturias. (In Spanish).
Nayeri, D., Mohammadi, A., Zedrosser, A., & Soofi, M. (2022). Characteristics of natural and anthropogenic mortality of an endangered brown bear population. Journal for Nature Conservation, 70, 126288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2022.126288
Nezami, B. (2008). Ecological study on brown bear (Ursus arctos) in northern part of central Alborz protected area - Mazandaran province [Unpublished master's thesis]. Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran.
Parchizadeh, J., & Belant, J. L. (2021). Brown bear and Persian leopard attacks on humans in Iran. PLOS One, 16(7), e0255042. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0255042
Patterson, B. D., Kasiki, S. M., Selempo, E., & Kays, R. W. (2004). Livestock predation by lions (Panthera leo) and other carnivores on ranches neighboring Tsavo National Parks, Kenya. Biological Conservation, 119(4), 507–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2003.12.005
Penteriani, V., Zarzo-Arias, A., Novo-Fernández, A., Bombieri, G., & López-Sánchez, C. A. (2019). Responses of an endangered brown bear population to climate change based on predictable food resource and shelter alterations. Global Change Biology, 25(3), 1133–1151. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14564
Qashqaei, A. (2013). Seasonal diet and conflicts of brown bears in the Central Zagros [Unpublished master's thesis]. Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran.
Qashqaei, A. T., Karami, M., & Etemad, V. (2014). Wildlife conflicts between humans and brown bears, Ursus arctos, in the Central Zagros, Iran. Zoology in the Middle East, 60(2), 107–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/09397140.2014.914718
Rezaei, S., Mohammadi, A., Bencini, R., Rooney, T., & Naderi, M. (2022). Identifying connectivity for two sympatric carnivores in human-dominated landscapes in central Iran. Plos one, 17(6), e0269179. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269179
Rezaei, S., Mohammadi, A., Shadloo, S., Ranaie, M., & Wan, H. Y. (2023). Climate change induces habitat shifts and overlaps among carnivores in an arid and semi-arid ecosystem. Ecological Informatics, 77, 102247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2023.102247
Rigg, R., Finďo, S., Wechselberger, M., Gorman, M. L., Sillero-Zubiri, C., & Macdonald, D. W. (2011). Mitigating carnivore–livestock conflict in Europe: Lessons from Slovakia. Oryx, 45(2), 272–280. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003060531000155X
Seijas, J. M., Osorio, M. A., García, F., Muñoz, J., Gonzalez, L. M., & Naves, J. (2016). Effectiveness of brown bear damage protection measures to protect apiaries in the Cantabrian Mountains. Carnivore Damage Prevention News, 12, 26–30. https://cdpnews.net/
Servheen, C. (1999). Bears: Status survey and conservation action plan (Vol. 44). IUCN. https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/7517
Shahbazinasab, K., Ashrafzadeh, M. R., & Mohammadi, A. (2023). Factors affecting the intensity of human-brown bear conflict in Kohgiluyeh va Boyer-Ahmad province and the most important solutions to reduce conflict. Journal of Natural Environment, 76(3), 429–446. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22059/jne.2023.356499.2536
Sıkdokur, R., Naderi, M., Çeltik, E., Kemahlı Aytekin, M. Ç., Kusak, J., Sağlam, İ. K., & Şekercioğlu, Ç. H. (2024). Human–brown bear conflicts in Türkiye are driven by increased human presence around protected areas. Ecological Informatics, 81, 102643. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2024.102643
Silverman, B. W. (1986). Density Estimation for Statistics and Data Analysis. Chapman & Hall.
Sinclair, C. (2016). Comparison of group size, abundance estimates, and movement patterns of common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Mississippi Sound, Mississippi [Master's thesis, University of Southern Mississippi]. USM Digital Commons. https://aquila.usm.edu/masters_theses/194/
Smith, T. S., Herrero, S., & DeBruyn, T. D. (2005). Alaskan brown bears, humans, and habituation. Ursus, 16(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.2192/1537-6176(2005)016[0001:ABBHAH]2.0.CO;2
Soofi, M., Qashqaei, A. T., Aryal, A., & Coogan, S. C. (2018). Autumn food habits of the brown bear Ursus arctos in the Golestan National Park: A pilot study in Iran. Mammalia, 82(4), 338–342. https://doi.org/10.1515/mammalia-2017-0046
Woodroffe, R. (2000). Predators and people: Using human densities to interpret declines of large carnivores. Animal Conservation, 3(2), 165–173. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-1795.2000.tb00241.x
Worthy, F. R., & Foggin, J. M. (2008). Conflicts between local villagers and Tibetan brown bears threaten conservation of bears in a remote region of the Tibetan Plateau. Human-Wildlife Conflicts, 2(2), 200–205. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/hwi/vol2/iss2/12/
Xie, Z., & Yan, J. (2013). Detecting traffic accident clusters with network kernel density estimation and local spatial statistics: An integrated approach. Journal of Transport Geography, 31, 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2013.05.007
Xu, J., Wei, J., & Liu, W. (2019). Escalating human–wildlife conflict in the Wolong Nature Reserve, China: A dynamic and paradoxical process. Ecology and Evolution, 9(12), 7273–7283. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5299
Yusefi, G. H. (2013). Noninvasive genetic tracking of Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) at its range edge in Iran: A pilot study [Master's thesis, Uppsala University]. DiVA Portal. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:616335/FULLTEXT01.pdf
Zahoor, B., Liu, X., Kumar, L., Dai, Y., Tripathy, B. R., & Songer, M. (2021). Projected shifts in the distribution range of Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus) in the Hindu Kush Himalaya due to climate change. Ecological Informatics, 63, 101312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2021.101312
Zarzo-Arias, A., Penteriani, V., Delgado, M. M., Peon Torre, P., Garcia-Gonzalez, R., Mateo-Sánchez, M. C., Vazquez Garcia, P., & Dalerum, F. (2019). Identifying potential areas of expansion for the endangered brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in the Cantabrian Mountains (NW Spain). PLOS One, 14(1), e0209972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0209972
Zarzo-Arias, A., Delgado, M. M., Palazón, S., Afonso Jordana, I., Bombieri, G., González-Bernardo, E., Ordiz, A., Bettega, C., García-González, R., & Penteriani, V. (2021). Seasonality, local resources and environmental factors influence patterns of brown bear damages: Implications for management. Journal of Zoology, 313(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/jzo.12831
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JWB applies the 