Zoonotic pathogen exchange between humans and wild Primates: Implications for ecotourism and conservation

Authors

  • Zuxra Abdukadirovna Nuruzova Department of Microbiology, Virology, and Immunology, Tashkent State Medical University
  • Muxabbat Fayzievna Fayzieva Second Department of Public Health and Healthcare Management, Tashkent State Medical University
  • Ma'mura Ikramovna Xasanova Second Department of Public Health and Healthcare Management, Tashkent State Medical University
  • Bahriddin Maxamatkulovich Eshdavlatov Second Department of Public Health and Healthcare Management, Tashkent State Medical University
  • Sanobar Yuldashevna Kurbanova Department of Microbiology, Virology, and Immunology, Tashkent State Medical University,
  • Firdavs Nekkadamovich Nuraliyev Second Department of Public Health and Healthcare Management, Tashkent State Medical University
  • Shahnoza Alisher qizi Khasanova Department of Physiology and Pathology, Tashkent State Medical University
  • Umida Mustafayevna Nuraliyeva Department of Microbiology, Virology, and Immunology, Tashkent State Medical University
  • Aygul Zhusipbaevna Ilyasova Department of Public Health, Healthcare Management and Physical Education, Tashkent State Medical University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20021378

Keywords:

zoonotic transmission, wild primates, ecotourism, reverse zoonosis, Herpes B virus, Giardia, conservation medicine, Tashkent State Medical University

Abstract

The interface between humans and wild primates in ecotourism settings poses a significant risk of bidirectional zoonotic pathogen transmission. This study, conducted at the clinics of Tashkent State Medical University (TSMU) from January 2023 to December 2024, investigated the prevalence of shared viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections among 150 ecotourists returning from primate habitat regions (Southeast Asia, Africa, and Central/South America) and 50 captive long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) imported for research. Using serological, molecular (PCR), and parasitological methods, we detected antibodies against Herpes B virus (Macacine alphaherpesvirus 1) in 4.0% of tourists and 18.0% of macaques; SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in 12.0% of tourists and 6.0% of macaques; and Giardia duodenalis in 22.0% of tourists and 14.0% of macaques. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed cross-species transmission clusters. In multivariable analysis, feeding primates was associated with a 3.5-fold increase in infection odds (95% CI: 1.8-6.8), while photography with direct contact and proximity of <3 m were also significant risk factors. These findings highlight the urgent need for health monitoring protocols at primate ecotourism sites and conservation areas to prevent reverse zoonoses and protect endangered primate populations.

References

Calvignac-Spencer, S., Leendertz, S. A. J., Gillespie, T. R., & Leendertz, F. H. (2012). Wild great apes as sentinels for emerging infectious diseases. Current Opinion in Virology, 2(1), 84-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coviro.2011.12.004

Chandler, J. C., Bevins, S. N., Ellis, J. W., Linder, T. J., Tell, R. M., Jenkins-Moore, M., Root, J. J., Lenoch, J. B., Robbe-Austerman, S., DeLiberto, T. J., Gidlewski, T., Torchetti, M. K., Shriner, S. A., & Wan, X. F. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 exposure in wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(47), e2114828118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2114828118

Cohen, J. I., Davenport, D. S., Stewart, J. A., et al. (2002). Recommendations for prevention of and therapy for exposure to B virus (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1). Clinical Infectious Diseases, 35(10), 1191-1203. https://doi.org/10.1086/344209

Dusseldorp, F., Schuurman, N., van den Brand, J. M. A., et al. (2023). SARS-CoV-2 in lions, gorillas and zookeepers in the Rotterdam Zoo, the Netherlands: A One Health investigation, November 2021. Euro Surveillance, 28(28), 2200741. https://doi.org/10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2023.28.28.2200741

Dunay, E., Apakupakul, K., Leard, S., et al. (2018). Pathogen transmission from humans to nonhuman primates. Conservation Biology, 32(4), 798-808. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13074

Fuentes, A. (2013). Human-nonhuman primate interconnections and their relevance to anthropology. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 150(Suppl. 57), 69-79. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22223

Fuentes, A., & Hockings, K. J. (2010). The ethnoprimatology of human-primate interface. Annual Review of Anthropology, 39, 315-330. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.012809.104954

Goldberg, T. L., Gillespie, T. R., Rwego, I. B., et al. (2008). Gastrointestinal parasite transmission between humans and mountain gorillas. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 44(3), 605-615. https://doi.org/10.7589/0090-3558-44.3.605

Huff, J. L., & Barry, P. A. (2003). B-virus (Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1) infection in humans and macaques. Comparative Medicine, 53(3), 251-264.

Jones, K. E., Patel, N. G., Levy, M. A., et al. (2008). Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature, 451(7181), 990-993. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature06536

Muehlenbein, M. P., Martinez, L. A., Lemke, A. A., et al. (2019). Perceived risk of disease transmission at wild primate ecotourism sites. EcoHealth, 16(2), 256-268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10393-019-01408-4

Muehlenbein, M. P., & Wallis, J. (2014). Considering risks of pathogen transmission associated with primate-based tourism. In A. E. Russon & J. Wallis (Eds.), Primate tourism: A tool for conservation? (pp. 145-159). Cambridge University Press.

Nunn, C. L., & Altizer, S. (2006). Infectious diseases in primates: Behavior, ecology and evolution. Oxford University Press.

Pedersen, A. B., Altizer, S., Poss, M., Cunningham, A. A., & Nunn, C. L. (2005). Patterns of host specificity and transmission among parasites of wild primates. International Journal for Parasitology, 35(6), 647-657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.01.005

Wolfe, N. D., Dunavan, C. P., & Diamond, J. (2007). Origins of major human infectious diseases. Nature, 447(7142), 279-283. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05775

Wolfe, N. D., Escalante, A. A., Karesh, W. B., et al. (1998). Wild primate populations in emerging infectious disease research. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 4(2), 149-158. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid0402.980202

Downloads

Published

2026-05-04

How to Cite

Nuruzova, Z. A., Fayzieva , M. F., Xasanova, . M. . I., Eshdavlatov , B. M., Kurbanova, . S. Y., Nuraliyev , F. N., Khasanova , S. A. qizi, Nuraliyeva , U. . M., & Ilyasova , A. Z. (2026). Zoonotic pathogen exchange between humans and wild Primates: Implications for ecotourism and conservation . Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity, 10(1), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.20021378

Issue

Vol. 10 No. 1 (2026): Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity

Section

Original Article

License

Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.