Dendrometric and structural indicators of forest resilience to climate extremes: A systematic review of post-disturbance stand dynamics
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.22359448Keywords:
Forest resilience, Africa’s tropical forests, forest recovery, diversityAbstract
There is a clear trend of increasing number and intensity of observed climate disruptions, including droughts, floods, extreme heat, storms, and uncontrolled fires. These events test the ability of forests to preserve their shape, production and persistence through time. Evidence collected here is based on measurable biological characteristics that are assessed for the ability of forests and woodlands to resist weather-related shocks. Tropical regions, regions below the Sahara and coastal mangroves in Nigeria, which are influenced by changing climates, are given special attention. Traits being examined include the rate of trunk widening, growth in height, mortality, establishment of new trees, cross-sectional area per plot, number of stems, and physical layout variation. Results indicate that in many warm-region forests, the growth rate of girth is reduced by from one-tenth to one-half during long dry periods. It will take 2 to 10 growth cycles for the plants to return to previous growth levels, depending on which plants are dominant and the severity of the conditions. Wider trunks in the higher layers are more stressed in hot and dry conditions, resulting in significant losses of ground cover values and the capacity to sequester atmospheric carbon. Mangrove systems are more resilient than many other systems to flooding and salt exposure, due to unique biological characteristics, and usually recover in mass and trunk size after 3-5 years if not damaged. Recovery strength in forests is closely coupled to a diversity of canopy layers, a relatively stable rate of young tree arrival compared to loss, and survival of large trees, which contribute the most to stored carbon and volume. Storms and fire alter forests by killing trees in uneven patterns and changing the species that dominate them, and recovery rates vary with forest type and event intensity. Despite the growing number of studies, comparisons remain challenging due to the limited availability of long-term data, inconsistent measurement of rebound ability, and the underrepresentation of Africa's tropical forests. This analysis suggests a convergence of observation methods that involves fixed study areas, consistent growth markers, and satellite tools to support smarter forestry decisions, accurate carbon tracking and enduring adaptability in the face of increasingly challenging climate conditions.
References
Adams, H.D., Zeppel, M.J.B., Anderegg, W.R.L., Hartmann, H., Landhäusser, S.M., Tissue, D.T., Huxman, T.E., Hudson, P.J., Franz, T.E., Allen, C.D., Anderegg, L.D.L., Barron-Gafford, G.A., Beerling, D.J., Breshears, D.D., Brodribb, T.J., Bugmann, H., Cobb, R.C., Collins, A.D., Dickman, L.T., … McDowell, N.G. (2017). A multi-species synthesis of physiological mechanisms in drought-induced tree mortality. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 1(9), 1285–1291. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0248-x
Ajonina, G.N., Kairo, J., Grimsditch, G., Sembres, T., Chuyong, G. & Diyouke, E. (2014). Assessment of Mangrove Carbon Stocks in Cameroon, Gabon, the Republic of Congo (RoC) and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) Including their Potential for Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+). In Diop, S., Barusseau, J. P., & Descamps, C. (Eds.). The Land/Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone of West and Central Africa, Estuaries of the World, Springer International Publishing Switzerland, 177-189. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-06388-1_15
Allen, C.D., Macalady, A.K., Chenchouni, H., Bachelet, D., McDowell, N., Vennetier, M., … Cobb, N. (2010). A global overview of drought and heat-induced tree mortality reveals emerging climate change risks for forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 259(4), 660–684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2009.09.001
Alongi, D.M. (2008). Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 76(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2007.08.024
Alongi, D.M. (2012). Carbon sequestration in mangrove forests. Carbon Management, 3(3), 313–322. https://doi.org/10.4155/cmt.12.20
Alongi, D.M. (2014). Carbon cycling and storage in mangrove forests. Annual Review of Marine Science, 6, 195–219. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010213-135020
Alongi, D.M. (2015). The impact of climate change on mangrove forests. Current Climate Change Reports, 1(1), 30–39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40641-015-0002-x
Anderegg, W.R.L., Berry, J. A., Smith, D.D., Sperry, J.S., Anderegg, L.D.L., & Field, C.B. (2012). The roles of hydraulic and carbon stress in a widespread climate-induced forest die-off. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(1), 233–237. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1107891109
Anderegg, W.R.L., Kane, J.M., & Anderegg, L.D.L. (2013). Consequences of widespread tree mortality triggered by drought and temperature stress. Nature Climate Change, 3, 30–36. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1635.
Anderegg, W.R.L., Schwalm, C., Biondi, F., Camarero, J.J., Koch, G., Litvak, M., … Pacala, S. (2015). Pervasive drought legacies in forest ecosystems and their implications for carbon cycling. Science, 349(6247), 528–532. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aab1833
Anderson, L. O., Malhi, Y., Aragão, L. E. O. C., Ladle, R., Arai, E., Barbier, N., & Phillips, O. (2010). Remote sensing detection of droughts in Amazonian forest canopies. New Phytologist, 187(3), 733–750. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03355.x
Anderson-Teixeira, K.J., et al. (2013). Climate-regulation services of natural and agricultural ecoregions of the Americas. Nature Climate Change, 2(3), 177–181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1346
Assmann, E. (1970). The principles of forest yield study. Pergamon Press.
Avery, T.E., & Burkhart, H.E. (2002). Forest measurements (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Baker, T.R., Phillips, O.L., Malhi, Y., Almeida, S., Arroyo, L., Di Fiore, A., … Vásquez Martínez, R. (2004). Increasing biomass in Amazonian forest plots. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 359(1443), 353–365. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2003.1422
Bastin, J.-F., Barbier, N., Réjou-Méchain, M., Fayolle, A., Gourlet-Fleury, S., Maniatis, D., de Haulleville, T., Baya, F., Beeckman, H., Beina, D., Couteron, P., Chuyong, G., Dauby, G., Doucet, J.-L., Droissart, V., Dufrêne, M., Ewango, C., Gillet, J.F., Gonmadje, C.H., … Bogaert, J. (2015). Seeing Central African forests through their largest trees. Scientific Reports, 5, 13156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/srep13156
Bennett, A.C., McDowell, N. G., Allen, C. D., & Anderson-Teixeira, K. J. (2015). Larger trees suffer most during drought in forests worldwide. Nature Plants, 1, 15139. https://doi.org/10.1038/nplants.2015.139
Bennett, A.C., Greta C. Dargie, G.C., Aida Cuni-Sanchez A………& Lewis S.L. (2021). Resistance of African tropical forests to an extreme climate anomaly. PNAS, 118(21), e2003169118. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2003169118.
Bonan, G.B. (2008). Forests and climate change: Forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science, 320(5882), 1444–1449. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155121
Bonan, G.B. (2016). Forests, climate, and public policy: A close look at the interconnections. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 47, 223–251. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-121415-032359
Bond, W.J., Woodward, F.I. & Midgley, G.F. (2005). The global distribution of ecosystems in a world without fire. New Phytol 165(2): 525-538, DOI:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01252.x
Brando, P.M., Balch, J. K., Nepstad, D. C., Morton, D. C., Putz, F. E., Coe, M. T., Silvério, D., Macedo, M.N., Davidson, E.A., Nóbrega, C.C., & Alencar, A. (2014). Abrupt increases in Amazonian tree mortality due to drought–fire interactions. PNAS, 111(17), 6347–6352. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1305499111
Breshears, D.D., Cobb, N.S., Rich, P.M., Price, K.P., Allen, C.D., Balice, R.G., … Meyer, C.W. (2005). Regional vegetation die-off in response to global-change-type drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102(42), 15144–15148. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0505734102
Brienen, R.J.W., Phillips, O.L., Feldpausch, T.R., Gloor, E., Baker, T.R., Lloyd, J., … others. (2015). Long-term decline of the Amazon carbon sink. Nature, 519, 344–348. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14283
Burkhart, H.E., & Tomé, M. (2012). Modeling forest trees and stands. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3170-9
Cailleret, M., Jansen, S., Robert, E.M.R., Desoto, L., Aakala, T., Antos, J.A., … Martínez-Vilalta, J. (2017). A synthesis of radial growth patterns preceding tree mortality. Global Change Biology, 23(4), 1675–1690. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13535
Chave, J., Andalo, C., Brown, S., Cairns, M. A., Chambers, J.Q., Eamus, D., … Yamakura, T. (2005). Tree allometry and improved estimation of carbon stocks and balance in tropical forests. Oecologia, 145, 87–99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-005-0100-x
Chave, J., Réjou-Méchain, M., Búrquez, A., Chidumayo, E., Colgan, M. S., Delitti, W. B. C., … Vieilledent, G. (2014). Improved allometric models to estimate the aboveground biomass of tropical trees. Global Change Biology, 20(10), 3177–3190. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12629
Choat, B., Jansen, S., Brodribb, T. J., Cochard, H., Delzon, S., Bhaskar, R., … Zanne, A.E. (2012). Global convergence in the vulnerability of forests to drought. Nature, 491, 752–755. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11688
Cox, P.M., Pearson, D., Booth, B.B., Friedlingstein, P., Huntingford, C., Jones, C.D., & Luke, C.M. (2013). Sensitivity of tropical carbon to climate change constrained by carbon dioxide variability. Nature, 494(7437), 341–344. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature11882
Cuni-Sanchez, A., Sullivan, M.J.P., Platts, P.J., Lewis, S.L., Marchant, R., Imani, G., Qie, L., Sonké, B., Affum-Baffoe, K., Balima, L.H., Begne, S.K., Beina, D., Ewango, C.E.N., Kearsley, E., Kordofani, M., Leal, M., Makana, J.-R., Maniania, B., Mbongo, N., Munishi, P.K.T., Ndangalasi, H.J., Nguembou, C.K., Sonké, B., Taedoumg, H., Sunderland, T.C.H., Willcock, S., Zihindula, L., & Phillips, O.L. (2021). High aboveground carbon stock of African tropical montane forests. Nature, 596(7873), 536–542. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03728-4
Donato, D. C., Kauffman, J.B., Murdiyarso, D., Kurnianto, S., Stidham, M., & Kanninen, M. (2011). Mangroves among the most carbon-rich forests in the tropics. Nature Geoscience, 4, 293–297. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1123
Dou, Y., Tian, F., Wigneron, J.P., et al. (2024). Satellite observations indicate slower recovery of woody components compared to upper-canopy and leaves in tropical rainforests after drought. Communications Earth & Environment, 5, 725. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01892-9
Duke, N. C., Meynecke, J.-O., Dittmann, S., Ellison, A. M., Anger, K., Berger, U., … Dahdouh-Guebas, F. (2007). A world without mangroves? Science, 317(5834), 41–42. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.317.5834.41b
Elmqvist, T., Folke, C., Nyström, M., Peterson, G., Bengtsson, J., Walker, B., & Norberg, J. (2003). Response diversity, ecosystem change, and resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 1(9), 488–494. https://doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2003)001
Erskine, P.D., Lamb, D., & Bristow, M. (2006). Tree species diversity and ecosystem function: Can tropical multi-species plantations generate greater productivity? Forest Ecology and Management, 233(2–3), 205–210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2006.05.013
FAO. (2018). Climate-smart forestry: A framework for sustainable forest management under climate change. FAO Forestry Paper No. 176. Rome: FAO. https://www.fao.org/forestry/en/
Fayolle, A., Swaine, M.D., Bastin, J.-F., Bourland, N., Comiskey, J.A., Dauby, G., Doucet, J.-L., Gillet, J.-F., Gourlet-Fleury, S., Hardy, O.J., Kirunda, B., Kouamé, F.N. and Plumptre, A.J. (2014), Patterns of tree species composition across tropical African forests. J. Biogeogr., 41: 2320-2331. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.12382
Fayolle, A., Engelbrecht, B., Freycon, V., Mortier, F., Swaine, M., Réjou-Méchain, M., Doucet, J.-L., Fauvet, N., Cornu, G., & Gourlet-Fleury, S. (2012). Geological substrates shape tree species and trait distributions in African moist forests. PLoS ONE, 7(8), e42381. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0042381
Feldpausch, T.R., Phillips, O.L., Brienen, R.J.W., Gloor, E., Lloyd, J., Lopez-Gonzalez, G., Monteagudo-Mendoza, A., Malhi, Y., Alarcón, A., Álvarez Dávila, E., Alvarez-Loayza, P., Andrade, A., Aragao, L.E.O.C., Arroyo, L., Aymard, G.A., Baker, T.R., Baraloto, C., Barroso, J., Bonal, D., … Vos, V.A. (2016). Amazon forest response to repeated droughts. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 30(7), 964–982. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/2015GB005133
Folke, C., Carpenter, S. R., Walker, B., Scheffer, M., Elmqvist, T., Gunderson, L., & Holling, C. S. (2004). Regime shifts, resilience, and biodiversity in ecosystem management. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 35, 557–581. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105711
Forrester, D.I., & Pretzsch, H. (2015). Tamm review: On the strength of evidence when comparing ecosystem functions of mixtures with monocultures. Forest Ecology and Management, 356, 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2015.08.016
Gatti, L.V., Gloor, M., Miller, J.B., Doughty, C.E., Malhi, Y., Domingues, L.G., Basso, L.S., Martinewski, A., Correia, C.S.C., Borges, V.F., Freitas, S., Braz, R., Anderson, L.O., Rocha, H., Grace, J., Phillips, O.L., & Lloyd, J. (2014). Drought sensitivity of Amazonian carbon balance revealed by atmospheric measurements. Nature, 506(7486), 76–80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12957
Gazol A, Camarero J.J, Vicente-Serrano S.M, et al. Forest resilience to drought varies across biomes. Glob Change Biol. 2018;24:2143–2158. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14082
Gunderson, L. H. (2000). Ecological resiliencein theory and application. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 31, 425–439. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.425
Hartmann, H., Bastos, A., Das, A. J., Esquivel-Muelbert, A., Hammond, W. M., Martínez-Vilalta, J., McDowell, N. G., Powers, J. S., Pugh, A. M., Ruthrof, K. X., & Allen, C. D. (2022). Climate Change Risks to Global Forest Health: Emergence of Unexpected Events of Elevated Tree Mortality Worldwide. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 73(Volume 73, 2022), 673-702. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-102820-012804.
Higgins, J. P. T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M. J., & Welch, V. A. (Eds.). (2023). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions (Version 6.5). Cochrane.
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4, 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245
Hubau, W., Lewis, S.L., Phillips, O.L., Affum-Baffoe, K., Beeckman, H., Cuní-Sanchez, A., … Zemagho, L. (2020). Asynchronous carbon sink saturation in African and Amazonian tropical forests. Nature, 579, 80–87. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2035-0
IPCC. (2007). M.L. Parry, O.F. Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Linden, C.E. Hanson (Eds.), Climate change 2007: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK , 976 pp.
IPCC. (2023). Climate Change 2023: Synthesis Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Isbell, F., Craven, D., Connolly, J., Loreau, M., Schmid, B., Beierkuhnlein, C., … & Hector, A. (2015). Biodiversity increases the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate extremes. Nature, 526, 574–577. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15374
Isbell, F., Gonzalez, A., Loreau, M., Cowles, J., Díaz, S., Hector, A., … Wardle, D.A. (2015). Biodiversity increases the resistance of ecosystem productivity to climate extremes. Nature, 526(7574), 574–577. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature15374.
Johnstone, J.F., Allen, C.D., Franklin, J.F., Frelich, L.E., Harvey, B.J., Higuera, P.E., Mack, M.C., Meentemeyer, R.K., Metzger, J.P., Perry, G.L. W., Schoennagel, T., & Turner, M.G. (2016). Changing disturbance regimes, ecological memory, and forest resilience. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 14(7), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1311
Jump, A.S., Ruiz-Benito, P., Greenwood, S., Allen, C.D., Kitzberger, T., Fensham, R., Martínez-Vilalta, J. and Lloret, F. (2017), Structural overshoot of tree growth with climate variability and the global spectrum of drought-induced forest dieback. Glob Change Biol, 23: 3742-3757. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13636
Kozlowski, T.T. (1997) Responses of woody plants to flooding and salinity. Tree Physiology, Volume 17, Issue 7, July 1997, Page 490, https://doi.org/10.1093/treephys/17.7.490
Larson, A. J., & Churchill, D. (2012). Tree spatial patterns in fire-frequent forests of western North America, including mechanisms of pattern formation and implications for designing fuel reduction and restoration treatments. Forest Ecology and Management, 267, 74–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2011.11.038
Lewis, S. L., Sonké, B., Sunderland, T., Begne, S. K., Lopez-Gonzalez, G., van der Heijden, G. M. F., … Phillips, O. L. (2013). Above-ground biomass and structure of 260 African tropical forests. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 368(1625), 20120295. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0295
Lewis, S. L., Lopez-Gonzalez, G., Sonké, B., Affum-Baffoe, K., Baker, T.R., Ojo, L.O., … Phillips, O.L. (2009). Increasing carbon storage in intact African tropical forests. Nature, 457, 1003–1006. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07771
Lewis, S.L., Brando, P.M., Phillips, O.L., van der Heijden, M.F. and Nepstad D. (2011). The 2010 Amazon drought. Science, 331(6017), 554. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1200807
Lindenmayer, D.B., Laurance, W.F., & Franklin, J.F. (2012). Global decline in large old trees. Science, 338(6112), 1305–1306. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1231070
Lloret, F., Keeling, E. G., & Sala, A. (2011). Components of tree resilience: Effects of successive low-growth episodes in old ponderosa pine forests. Oikos, 120(12), 1909–1920. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19372.x
Lloret, F., Keeling, E. G., & Sala, A. (2011). Components of tree resilience: Effects of successive low-growth episodes in old ponderosa pine forests. Oikos, 120(12), 1909–1920. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0706.2011.19372.x
Malhi, Y. (2012). The productivity, metabolism and carbon cycle of tropical forest vegetation. Journal of Ecology, 100: 65-75. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2011.01916.x
Malhi, Y., Gardner, T. A., Goldsmith, G. R., Silman, M. R., & Zelazowski, P. (2014). Tropical forests in the Anthropocene. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 39, 125–159. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-155141.
Malhi, Y., Phillips, O.L., Lloyd, J., Baker, T., Wright, J., Almeida, S., Arroyo, L., Frederiksen, T., Grace, J., Higuchi, N., Killeen, T., Laurance, W.F., Leaño, C., Lewis, S., Meir, P., Monteagudo, A., Neill, D., Núñez Vargas, P., Panfil, S.N., Patiño, S., Pitman, N., Quesada, C.A., Rudas-Ll., A., Salomão, R., Saleska, S., Silva, N., Silveira, M., Sombroek, W.G., Valencia, R., Vásquez Martínez, R., Vieira, I.C.G. and Vinceti, B. (2002), An international network to monitor the structure, composition and dynamics of Amazonian forests (RAINFOR). Journal of Vegetation Science, 13: 439-450. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-1103.2002.tb02068.x
Martínez-Ramos, M., Ortiz-Rodríguez, I.A., Piñero, D., Dirzo, R., & Sarukhán, J. (2016). Anthropogenic disturbances jeopardize biodiversity conservation within tropical rainforest reserves. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(19), 5323–5328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602893113
McDowell, N.G., Beerling, D.J., Breshears, D.D., Fisher, R.A., Raffa, K.F., & Stitt, M. (2011). The interdependence of mechanisms underlying climate-driven vegetation mortality. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 26(10), 523–532. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2011.06.003
McDowell, N. G., Pockman, W. T., Allen, C. D., Breshears, D. D., Cobb, N., Kolb, T., … Yepez, E. A. (2008). Mechanisms of plant survival and mortality during drought: Why do some plants survive while others succumb? New Phytologist, 178(4), 719–739. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02436.x
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis. Island Press.
Mitchard, E.T.A. The tropical forest carbon cycle and climate change. Nature 559, 527–534 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0300-2
Mitchard, E.T.A., Saatchi, S.S., White, L.J.T., Abernethy, K.A., Jeffery, K.J., Lewis, S.L., Collins, M., Lefsky, M.A., Leal, M.E., Woodhouse, I.H., & Meir, P. (2012). Mapping tropical forest biomass with radar and spaceborne LiDAR in Lopé National Park, Gabon: overcoming problems of high biomass and persistent cloud. Biogeosciences, 9(1), 179–191. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-179-2012
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D.G. (2009). PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 21;6 (7):e1000097. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097. Epub 2009 Jul 21. PMID: 19621072; PMCID: PMC2707599.
Mori, A.S., Lertzman, K.P., & Gustafsson, L. (2013). Biodiversity and ecosystem services in forest ecosystems: a research agenda for applied forest ecology. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50(2), 396–404.
Nepstad, D.C., Tohver, I.M., Ray, D., Moutinho, P. and Cardinot, G. (2007), Mortality of large trees and lianas following experimental drought in an amazon forest. Ecology, 88: 2259-2269. https://doi.org/10.1890/06-1046.1
Numbere, A. O. (2018). Mangrove Ecosystem Ecology and Function. Mangrove species distribution and composition, adaptive strategies, and ecosystem services in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Open access peer-reviewed chapter. DOI:10.5772/intechopen.79028
Numbere, A.O. (2021). Mangrove Restoration under Different Disturbances Regime in the Niger Delta, Nigeria," Chapters, in: Sahadev Sharma (ed.), Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration, IntechOpen. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.96127
Numbere, A.O., & Camilo, G.R. (2017). Mangrove leaf litter decomposition under mangrove forest stands with different levels of pollution in the Niger River Delta, Nigeria. African Journal of Ecology, 55(2), 162–167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aje.12335
Oliver, T. H., Heard, M. S., Isaac, N. J. B., Roy, D. B., Procter, D., Eigenbrod, F., Freckleton, R., Hector, A., Orme, C. D. L., Petchey, O. L., Proença, V., Raffaelli, D., Suttle, K. B., Mace, G. M., Martín-López, B., Woodcock, B. A., & Bullock, J. M. (2015). Biodiversity and resilience of ecosystem functions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution,
Osland, M.J., Spivak, A.C., Nestlerode, J.A. et al. Ecosystem Development After Mangrove Wetland Creation: Plant–Soil Change Across a 20-Year Chronosequence. Ecosystems 15, 848–866 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-012-9551-1
Ouedraogo, D.-Y., et al. (2013). Slow-growing species cope best with drought: evidence from long-term measurements in a tropical semi-deciduous moist forest of Central Africa. Journal of Ecology, 101(6), 1459–1470. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.12165
Pan, Y., Birdsey, R.A., Fang, J., Houghton, R., Kauppi, P.E., Kurz, W.A., … Hayes, D. (2011). A large and persistent carbon sink in the world’s forests. Science, 333(6045), 988–993. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1201609
Parolin, P. (2002). Submergence tolerance vs. escape from submergence: two strategies of seedling establishment in Amazonian floodplains. Env. Exp. Bot. 48: 177–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0098-8472(02)00036-9
Philip, M. S. (1994). Measuring trees and forests (2nd ed.). CAB International.
Phillips, O. L., Aragão, L. E. O. C., Lewis, S. L., Fisher, J. B., Lloyd, J., López-González, G., … Malhi, Y. (2010). Drought sensitivity of the Amazon rainforest. Science, 323(5919), 1344–1347. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1164033
Phillips, O. L., Aragão, L. E. O. C., Lewis, S. L., Fisher, J. B., Lloyd, J., López-González, G., … Malhi, Y. (2009). Drought sensitivity of the Amazon rainforest. Science,6:323(5919), 1344–1347. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1164033
Phillips, O. L., Malhi, Y., Higuchi, N., Laurance, W. F., Núñez, P. V., Vásquez, R. M., … Brown, S. (2004). Pattern and process in Amazon tree turnover, 1976–2001. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 359(1443), 381–407. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2003.1438
Poorter, L., Bongers, F., Aide, T.M., Zambrano, A. M. A., Balvanera, P., Becknell, J. M., … Rozendaal, D. M. A. (2016). Biomass resilience of Neotropical secondary forests. Nature, 530, 211–214. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature16512
Popay, J., Roberts, H., Sowden, A., Petticrew, M., Arai, L., Rodgers, M., Britten, N., Roen, K., & Duffy, S. (2006). Guidance on the Conduct of Narrative Synthesis in Systematic Reviews: A Product from the ESRC Methods Programme, Version 1. Lancaster University. p.92
Puettmann, K.J., Coates, K.D., & Messier, C. (2015). A critique of silviculture: Managing for complexity. Island Press.
Qie, L., Lewis, S. L., Sullivan, M. J. P., Lopez-Gonzalez, G., Pickavance, G. C., Sunderland, T., et al., & Phillips, O. L. (2017). Long-term carbon sink in Borneo's forests halted by drought and vulnerable to edge effects. Nature Communications, 8, Article 1966. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-017-01997-0
Reichstein, M., Bahn, M., Ciais, P., Frank, D., Mahecha, M. D., Seneviratne, S. I., … Papale, D. (2013). Climate extremes and the carbon cycle. Nature 500, 287–295 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12350
Réjou-Méchain, M., Mortier, F., Bastin, JF. et al. Unveiling African rainforest composition and vulnerability to global change. Nature 593, 90–94 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03483-6
Schongart J, Piedade MTF, Ludwigshausen S, Horna V, Worbes M. Phenology and stem-growth periodicity of tree species in Amazonian floodplain forests. Journal of Tropical Ecology. 2002;18(4):581-597. doi:10.1017/S0266467402002389
Seidl, R., & Turner, M. G. (2022). Post-disturbance reorganization of forest ecosystems in a changing world. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 119(28), e2202190119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2202190119
Seidl, R., Schelhaas, M. J., Rammer, W., & Verkerk, P. J. (2014). Increasing forest disturbances in Europe and their impact on carbon storage. Nature Climate Change, 4, 806–810. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2318.
Seidl, R., Thom, D., Kautz, M., Martin-Benito, D., Peltoniemi, M., Vacchiano, G., … Lexer, M. J. (2017). Forest disturbances under climate change. Nature Climate Change, 7, 395–402. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate3303.
Shoo, L.P., Storlie, C., Vanderwal, J., Little, J. & Williams, S.E. (2011), Targeted protection and restoration to conserve tropical biodiversity in a warming world. Global Change Biology, 17: 186-193. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02218.x
Sitters, H., Christie, F., Di Stefano, J., Swan, M., Collins, P. & York A. (2014). Associations between occupancy and habitat structure can predict avian responses to disturbance: Implications for conservation management. Forest Ecology and Management, 331, 227-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2014.08.013.
Sonké, B., Couteron, P., Fauvet, N., & others. (2007). Structural and floristic variation in Central African forests. Forest Ecology and Management, 242(2–3), 515–528.
Sullivan, M. J. P., Lewis, S. L., Affum-Baffoe, K., Castilho, C. V., Costa, F., Sanchez, A. C., … Phillips, O. L. (2017). Diversity and carbon storage across the tropical forest biome. Sci Rep 7, 39102 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/srep39102
Sullivan, M. J. P., Talbot, J., Lewis, S. L., Phillips, O. L., Qie, L., Begne, S. K., … Zemagho, L. (2020). Long-term thermal sensitivity of Earth’s tropical forests. Science, 368(6493), 869–874. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw7578.
Thompson, I. D., Guariguata, M. R., Okabe, K., Bahamondez, C., Nasi, R., Heymell, V. & Sabogal, C., (2013). An Operational Framework for Defining and Monitoring Forest Degradation. Ecology and Society 18 (2): 20. http://dx.doi.org/10.5751/ES-05443-180220
Thompson, I.D., Mackey, B., McNulty, S., & Mosseler, A. (2009). Forest resilience, biodiversity, and climate change: A synthesis of the biodiversity/resilience/stability relationship in forest ecosystems. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity Technical Series No. 43.
Turner, M.G. (2010). Disturbance and landscape dynamics in a changing world. Ecology, 91(10), 2833–2849. https://doi.org/10.1890/10-0097.1
Vanclay, J. K. (1994). Modelling forest growth and yield: Applications to mixed tropical forests. CAB International.
Vangi, E., Dalmonech, D., Cioccolo, E., Marano, G., Bianchini, L., Puchi, P.F., Grieco, E., Cescatti, A., Colantoni, A., Chirici, G., and Collalti, A. (2024). Stand age diversity (and more than climate change) affects forests’ resilience and stability, although unevenly. Journal of Environmental Management, 366, 121822. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.121822.
Vicente-Serrano, S. M., Gouveia, C., Camarero, J. J., Beguería, S., Trigo, R., López-Moreno, J. I., et al. (2013). Response of vegetation to drought time-scales across global land biomes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(1), 52–57. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207068110
Voigt C, Marushchak ME, Mastepanov M, Lamprecht, R. E., Christensen, T. R., Dorodnikov, M., Jackowicz-Korczyński, M., Lindgren, A., Lohila, A., Nykänen, H., Oinonen, M., Oksanen, T., Palonen, V., Treat, C. C., Martikainen, P. J. & Biasi, C. (2019). Ecosystem carbon response of an Arctic peatland to simulated permafrost thaw. Glob Change Biol, 25:1746–1764. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.14574.
Walker, B., Holling, C. S., Carpenter, S. R., & Kinzig, A. (2004). Resilience, adaptability and transformability in social–ecological systems. Ecology and Society, 9(2), 5. https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-00650-090205
West, P. W. (2015). Tree and forest measurement (3rd ed.). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14708-6
Zeide, B. (1993). Analysis of growth equations. Forest Science, 39(3), 594–616. https://doi.org/10.1093/forestscience/39.3.594
Zhao, M. & Running, S.W. (2010). Drought-induced reduction in global terrestrial net primary production from 2000 through 2009. Science, 329(5994), 940–943. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1192666
Zuidema, P.A., Babst, F., Groenendijk, P., Trouet, V., Abiyu, A., Acuña-Soto, R., et al. (2025). Pantropical tree rings show small effects of drought on stem growth. Science, 389(6658), 533–539. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adq6607
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Journal of Wildlife and Biodiversity
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
JWB applies the 